Treaty of Versailles

 Treaty Signed; War Over. The Evening World.

On June 28, 1919, World War I came to a close with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. The Allied powers negotiated the reassignment of German boundaries and "assigned liability for reparations"(Kaiser). Germany was included in these negotiations, but was excluded from making any of the decisions. Throughout the months beginning half of 1919, the treaty's terms were arranged in Paris. The negotiations were split between France and the British and Americans. France "wanted to dismember Germany to make it impossible for a new war," while the British and Americans "did not want to create pretexts for a new war"(Kaiser). The treaty was comprised of fifteen parts and 440 articles. "The amount of territory Germany was to lose exceeded the most pessimistic predictions; the requirements for demilitarization would leave an army that looked more like a police force and render Germany incapable of defending itself"(202-203). Germany would also be liable for reparations. The specific figures were not clearly stated in the Treaty, only that "Germany [must accept] the responsibility of itself and its allies for the losses and damages of the Allies 'as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies"(Kaiser). The "War Guilt Clause," Article 231, forced the German nation to accept complete responsibility for initiating World War I(Treaty of Versailles, 1919). Other financial obligations were also required. Germany was also required to conduct war crimes proceedings. These would be held against the Kaiser and other leaders for wagging aggressive war. The Leipzig Trials, as they were known, resulted largely in acquittals, and were viewed as a sham(Treaty of Versailles, 1919). 

Treaty of Versailles

The reaction from the Germans was vehement opposition. Philipp Scheidemann, a German politician for the Social Democratic Party Germany, publicly refused to sign the treaty. He felt that the should be major concessions granted. The National Assembly, eventually, signed the treaty. They were under pressure by the Allies, who blockaded food supplies and threatened to resume hostilities if they did not consent to the treaty unconditionally.

 

The stab-in-the-back legend

Two representatives of the German government went to Versailles to accept the consequences of defeat. The signing ceremony took place in the same room, the Hall of Mirrors, that "the founding of the German Empire had been declared and William I proclaimed kaiser not fifty years earlier"(204). The right-wing German parties took this "attack" as a betrayal by the German government. This led to terrorists assassinating politicians that they considered to be responsible(Kaiser).

 

"Allied delegates in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles witness the German delegation's acceptance of the terms of the Treaty Of Versailles, the treaty formally ending World War I. Versailles, France, June 28, 1919."(Treaty of Versailles, 1919)

The Treaty of Versailles would play a vital role in the future destiny of the Weimar Republic. Many Germans felt that the "unjust terms were being forced on a defenseless country"(204). As stated in the book, Germany: A New History, the Allies chose a "destructive middle course"(204). Instead of breaking up the empire, like the French generals wanted, or accepting the Weimar Rupublic into the Western democracies, the Allies chose a much darker path. The treaty placed Germany "under legal sanctions, deprived [them] of military power, economically ruined [them], and politically humiliated [them]"(204). To the Germans, the new order of peace in Europe and democracy were alike; they were seen negatively. "[Politicians] who now called for moderation and rational compromise with the former enemy [were] automatically vulnerable to accusations of weakness, or even betrayal"(205).

 The Kapp Putsch march in 1920

The treaty would, coupled with the Great Depression, would cause hyperinflation to the mark. This would severely undermine Germany's economic stability, wiping out middle class savings and causing massive unemployment(Treat of Versailles, 1919). This economic chaos would leave Germany desperate for a solution; one that they would unfortunately find through Adolf Hitler.

 In the late 1920s, Adolf Hitler reviews stormtroopers at a Nazi Party rally in Nuremberg, Germany.

Kaiser, David. "Treaty of Versailles." History.com. A&E Television Networks. Web. 

Schulze, Hagen. Germany: A New History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1998. 202-05. Print.

"Treaty of Versailles, 1919." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. United States
              Holocaust Memorial Council, 18 Aug. 2015. Web.

Word Count: 711

Germany's Rise as a Nation

Germany went through many ordeals to become a unified state. It has suffered through economic downfall, the trade of powers, in-fighting between its principalities and territories, and several revolutions. The German nation needed to become unified, people did not want the fighting to continue; they wanted a commonality among them. The Thirty Years' War had left them in decimation. Population was low and there was wide spread economic stagnation.The German nation was stuck with its old views of politics. Smaller principalities did not have "the financial means nor the will to mold themselves into new-style states with modern administrations"(70/71). There was also no real unified language. The Protestants were the only ones that had a similar language because of Martin Luther and his translation of the Bible.

 

Martin Luther's 1534 Bible

Around the second half of the eighteenth century, Germany saw the rise of an educated class. The monarchs and rulers wanted to know more about what was going on in their territories, so people needed to have more skills. This new class contributed to the development of a standard German language based on the tons of regional dialects. Culture began to become unified as well; writers were identifying themselves with more of German, instead of French, ways of writing. Even with these advances, education was not being spread to the lower classes, and thus there was no real German identity. "The German nation existed solely on the plane of language and culture"(90).

 

Separate principalities and territories of the 1700s German nation

“The spirit of the Enlightenment filled people with the optimistic belief that it lay within their own power to achieve happiness in accord with the laws of nature and the human intellect”(93). Revolution was coming to the minds of many. This "revolution" turned into something far worse: a mass murder. This would be the first mass murder in modern history, all in the name of Enlightenment. The Reign of Terror would be regarded as "the downfall of reason"(93) among horrified German citizens. There would be many more revolutions after this, namely the revolution that launched the German National Assembly.

 

"Nine emigrants are executed by guillotine, 1793"

In March of 1848, a preliminary parliament met at the instigation of liberal leaders from all the German states. This parliament called for the election of a national assembly, called the German National Assembly - later known as the Frankfurt National Assembly; elections were held for representatives from each state. On May 18, 1848, 585 elected representatives, from all over the German nation, "convened in St. Paul's Church in Frankfurt to draft and adopt a constitution that would guarantee basic freedoms and to elect a nation government"(124).

 

German National Assembly 1848, a painting by Ludwig von Elliott 

 Although mainly liberals, the entire political spectrum was represented. Plans for a unified Germany were discussed at length, but it also had to decided upon an immediate problem: executive power and Germany's territorial extent. Two ideas emerged from this assembly. The first was the idea for a "'Great Germany,' which would consist of all German regions including Austria and be headed by a Hapsburg emperor"(125). A second, more radical idea, was for a "'Small Germany,' which would exclude the Austrian areas and be ruled by a Hohenzollern emperor"(126).

 

A different view point of the German National Assembly

On March 28, 1849, the assembly finally announced a proposed constitution. This would provide universal suffrage, a parliamentary government, and a hereditary emperor. There would be a unified monetary and customs system, but would still maintain an internal autonomy of the constituent German states. Austrian had other plans for the constitution. They mandated that either the entire Austrian Empire be added to the new Germany, or none of it. This was a blow to liberals who wanted at least the German-speaking parts to be added on. When it came time for an emperor to be chosen, Frederick William of Prussia was chosen, but only just barely. The assembly offered him the crown, but he refused; stuck in his old ways, he would only accept the crown from the other German princes, and he also rejected the proposed constitution.

 

Frederick William IV of Prussia

Without the support of either Prussia or Austria, the assembly could not survive. The representatives were ordered home home the governments of their respective states. Those the end of the German National Assembly.

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The Golden Twenties and the Berlin Wall

Berlin's history is vast, and as I have learned from the "Berlin History" videos, way more intricate than I could have imagined. The city goes through many different phases, from reformation to revolution to wars to renaissances. From these numerous events and topics, I have chosen the Golden Twenties and the Berlin Wall. It is interesting to see the similarities between the United States Roaring Twenties and Germany's Golden Twenties. Both were filled with change and creative energy; both were the beginning of a new era in thought.

 

The beginning of how we see the Berlin of today started in the 1920s. This is when the government decided to amalgamate, or unite, the region's towns and villages under one single administration. This caused Berlin to become one of the world's largest cities, practically overnight. Other than this victory of sorts, the Golden Twenties did not start off as being particularly golden. Germany was still suffering from the humiliation of losing the war, their intense social and political instability, hyperinflation, and many other issues. They struggled with high unemployment, and strikes and demonstrations were becoming an everyday occurrence. There seemed to be hope for Germany when the Rentenmark, a form of currency, was introduced in 1923; the passage of the Dawes Plan, limiting the reparation payments from World War I, in 1924 also aided in the economic stability gradually returning to Germany.

Children playing with blocks of worthless million dollar marks, 1924

In the coming years, Berlin experienced a cultural and artistic revival. It was a meca of experimentation, hedonism, a center of tolerance, and even a splash of decadence. It was overflowing with creative energy. New and modern pieces were popping up all the time; giants of architecture, fine arts, and literature were coming to the surface. In 1923, Germany had its first radio broadcast hit airwaves over Berlin; in 1931, television was debuted to the world in Berlin.

Image from the 1920s in front of the Brandenburg Gate

Unfortunately, as the saying goes, "all good things must come to an end." Everything came to a screeching halt when the US stock market crashed in 1929, ultimately resulting in global economic depression. It took only weeks for half a million of Berlin's residents to become jobless. This resulted in the renewal of riots and demonstrations in the streets of Berlin. The increasingly opposed political climate led to many recurring confrontations between communists and members of the newly founded Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, also known as the National Socialist German Workers' Party or the Nazi Party.

vs.

                                    Communist Flag                                                         Nazi Flag

This leads me to the other topic I found interesting, the Berlin Wall. Formed in 1961 as a barrier between East and West Berlin, it stands for many things for different people: a separation between loved ones, a prison for those trapped in East Berlin, a de-valuing of basic human rights, and so much more. The Berlin wall was officially referred to as the Anti-Fascist Protection Rampart; to locals on the East side, it was known as the death strip, while on the West side it was known as the Wall of Shame.

Before the wall was erected, there used to be only Soviet soldiers to guard the border. Once the passage of civilians was handled back to Germany, they decided that something more permanent be put in place. Berlin was losing some of its greatest mind to emigration, they needed to do something, and fast. Construction of the wall begin in the summer of 1961. On the night of August 12, 1961, the leaders of the GDR, German Democratic Republic, attended a garden party at which they signed the order to finally close the border and erect the wall. By the next morning, the wall was erected, and the border to West Berlin closed. The once easiest way to cross over from East to West Germany, was now the hardest. You could only cross through official crossings and gateways. Many people tried to cross the border, to escape the entrapment of East Berlin to the free side of West. There were many who tried, but only a few managed to get passed the many trials to the other side; there were guards meant to shoot down whoever attempted to cross and many would be caught in the barbed wire.

Berliners looking across to the other side of the Berlin Wall

In 1989, the Berlin Wall finally came tumbling down. Demolition began on the evening of November 9. 1989. Many people kept chunks of the fallen wall; my family being among these people. The Wall will forever be a part of Berlin's history, and those it affected.

Word Count: 776

Martin Luther's Accidental Reformations

In 1517, on All Hallow's Eve, Martin Luther stood up for what he believes in and placed his 95 Theses upon the church door in Wittenberg. This was just the beginning of the roller coaster of events that were to unfold because of Luther's actions. The Catholic church took these Theses as an outright bash towards them, and they would not sit by idly while someone took hits at them. Luther was claiming that the church was taking advantage of the common folks' money, and abusing the economy. The church did not take this accusation lightly, no matter how right he may be; they named Luther and all of his books heretical. This was nothing to be taken lightly because most heretics were drowned or burned at the stake. Luther sought to find courage in the face of adversity.

 Martin Luther hanging his 95 theses on the door of Wittenberg church

Pope Leo X demanded that Martin Luther renounce his theses, and recant his words and ideas against the Catholic church. The pope even had a cardinal interrogate Luther. The church in Rome became very aggravated with Luther, and even threatened excommunication, the highest threat someone from the church give hand out; this would people back then believed would limit Luther's chances of being granted access to the Holy Land upon his death. At the time he may not have realized it, but he was forming a religion of his own; this one based on his morals and understanding of what the Bible says. He would change the way that people thought about religion. There would be rules and sacraments changed. This new found religion would go on to be called Protestantism.

A drawing of the average printing press of Martin Luther's time

One of Luther's revolutions as a cultural leader was that he was one of the first people to take full advantage of the printing press at the time. He needed a way to spread his word to places beyond his reach, and that a vast many people could get and read. This proved a vast help in his cause of revealing the truth to people of all sorts. The printing press was a means of spreading ideas to a larger audience, and it served its purpose well; many people began to read and learn about what Luther had to say, and they believed that he was right. Luther printed books in his own form of the German vernacular, and this aided in the beginning of a common language in the German Nation. His voice was one that many people could relate to; he wrote in a way that people found interesting to read. He didn't hold back anything, he wrote what he thought no matter how crude or obscene. This was something that bonded him with the German peasants; there would even be wood carvings for those that could not read. Luther even goes on to eventually translate a Bible so that it is accessible to the common people.
 

A Bible translated into German by Martin Luther

Luther knew that if he really wanted to have things change, he would have to get a greater power on his side. He decided to involve the Christian nobility of the time, and to sway them towards his view. Their eyes were opened to the corrupt nature of the church, and that the money that they were earning for the church was being abused and misused. The pope and his church were being too self-indulgent with the money that was given to them. The church had many more people in its service than it really needed. Luther told them that every German landholder deserved their own stake in the churches on their land. Politically, Luther was beginning something that he could never have expected. Revolution broke out among the peasants; they interpreted his words in a way that they thought he meant for them to be free of their masters, to be independent. They believe in social discipline, relief of the poor, and education. The Reformation would mean changes for churches and peasants all over Germany.

Word count: 686

The German Renaissance

The German Renaissance, part of the Northern Renaissance which influenced the German, French, English, and Polish Renaissances, which originated from the Italian Renaissance, was a cultural and artistic movement that involved many of Germans finest thinkers throughout the 15th and 16th centuries. Germany had a slow start to its renaissance, it took a little over a century for it to actually kick into gear. Many of its artists, scientists, and men of the church traveled to Italy during the early stages, and brought back the ideals of the Italian Renaissance. The most accomplished of these people were those that were able to use the basis of the Italian Renaissance thinking, but still retain their German culture.

This movement allowed for classical thinking, the arts, and the natural sciences to become the forefront of thinking within Germany. There was a renewed interest in classical learning; old documents were being brought forth for examination and study. This was of thinking was a must for anyone living in the renaissance, and to do such was a great part of one's education. Many great German artists came forth through this movement; artists such as, Albrecht Dürer, a painter and woodworker known for his woodcut prints and who is considered one of the most famous artists of that period, and a vast number of musicians. Even some of Germany's Renaissance Architecture was inspired by Albrecht Dürer's work.

Self-Portrait at 28, 1500 by Albrecht Dürer

Literature and art were referenced back to the times of Ancient Greek and Roman societies and mythology, no doubt because of the influence the Holy Roman Empire still had on Germany back in the 15th and 16th centuries. The natural sciences, through developed from the Greek and Roman philosophies and teachings, were more developed upon. During the beginning, most art included printmaking, altarpiece art, and smaller devotional works such as secular panel paintings and religious wood carving. A few years into the Renaissance, a big influence became the Protestant Reformation, which continued on through the German Renaissance. Many artists struggled after the Reformation because there was no longer a demand for religious art. This led to more artists painting for courts; mostly portrait art and landscape painting. They sold their new kind of art to the rich and noble.

Baldassare Castiglione's "The Book of the Courtier" and Martin Luther's German Translation of the Bible
Examples of Renaissance and Reformation impacts on art and literature

Seeing as I am myself a fan of most art forms, I find that renaissances are a most intriguing time in a countries history. It is a time when thoughts are expanded upon, ideas flow freely, and art is at its finest. I think it is very interesting how the Reformation affected the transition of the Renaissance. It basically forced artists to find a new subject matter because of the low demand for religious art. This opened up Germany to a whole new spectrum of pieces; woodworking was at its finest. I also remember reading that because of the division of Protestantism and Catholicism, there was a divide in what the north and south of Germany focus on, which can be noticed even to this day; north is the arts and sciences, while the south is literature and knowledge.

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Choosing Germany

Choosing to go to Germany was a pretty easy choice for me. I am half German, and it runs deep within my family. I come from a long line of German last names, such as Hohulin, Heiniger, Helderle, Smith and many more that I don't even know about(yet). My mother's side of the family is almost purely German, except for the fact that they're also American. That was until my dad had to go and mess it up by marrying my mom, and now my siblings and I are German, Polish, English, and American. I have always wanted to know more about the German side of my ancestry, and the place that they called home. I am drawn to it by the architecture, the art, and the culture. Because my interest in German ran so deep, I actually decided to take German all four years of high school; I even became quite good at it. My older brother had also taken it, so we would talk to each other in German around the house to mess with our parents. I have since lost quite a bit of it from lack of practice, which I completely regret but have no time to remedy.

 

Brandenburg Gate, Berlin

I tried to go on the Germany trip this past winter with my friend and roommate, Sarah Schoonhoven, but because it is an ACR course, I was not able to go because of my sophomore standing. That's why I'm so excited about this upcoming winter! Sarah has told me such amazing things about the experience, and about how she loves how passionate Professor Wolf is about the course. She has been giving me great advice about what to bring and what to wear, and some of the places that I should try to visit that she really enjoyed.

 

I had to stalk her Facebook to find this... shhh, she doesn't need to know haha

One of the main things that I am interested in, and what drew me to this course, is that we get to see a lot of the incredible castles and cathedrals of Germany. One of my life goals is to go and try to see as many German castles as possible before I can no longer travel. This experience will help me to finally kick start that goal! There are so many to explore and learn about; I believe there are about 20,000. That's a lot! 

Wartburg Castle. One of the places we'll be visiting!

There are many things I am sure that I will learn from this trip. I anticipate that I will learn a lot about the difference in culture from Germany to the US;probably quite the culture shock. There will probably be many hints of how the US was influenced by Germany culture, theory, art, and much more, and vice versa. I'm very interested in learning about the architecture, art, and music of Germany, especially the classical pieces because of my musical background(I have played quite a lot of Handel and Brahms.) I'm sure that there will also be lessons learned about the difference in view about what happened during the World Wars. As Professor Wolf mentioned at our last meeting, we will also be learning about Martin Luther and his 95 theses. And of course I expect to learn a little bit about each of the cities that we'll be visiting.

Word Count: 568